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Your Environment. Your Health.

Microbiome

Introduction

Male body,man surrounded by microbiome spherical cloud of bacteria, viruses, microbes.

The microbiome is the collection of all microbes, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and their genes, that naturally live on our bodies and inside us. Although microbes require a microscope to see them, they contribute to human health and wellness in many ways. They protect us against pathogens, help our immune system develop, and enable us to digest food to produce energy. Some microbes alter environmental chemicals in ways that make them more toxic, while others act as a buffer and make environmental chemicals less toxic.

The critical role of the microbiome is not surprising when considering that there are as many microbes as there are human cells in the body.1 The human microbiome is diverse and each body site – for example, the gut, skin, and oral and nasal cavities – is home to a unique community of microbes.2 A person’s core microbiome is formed in the first few years of life, but can change over time in response to different factors including diet, medications, and a variety of environmental exposures.

Differences in the microbiome may lead to different health effects from environmental exposures and may also help determine individual susceptibility to certain illnesses. Environmental exposures can also disrupt a person’s microbiome in ways that could increase the likelihood of developing conditions such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, allergies, and inflammatory bowel disease.3

What is NIEHS Doing?

NIEHS studies the microbiome to gain a better understanding of its complex relationships with the environment, and how these interactions may contribute to human health and disease. This knowledge could help us revolutionize the way new chemicals are tested for toxicity, and design prevention and treatment strategies for diseases that have environmental causes.

NIEHS-supported research related to the microbiome includes the environmental factors described below.

Chronic stress – NIEHS researchers found chronic stress disturbs the gut microbiome in mice, triggering an immune response and promoting the development of colitis, a chronic digestive disease characterized by inflammation of the inner lining of the colon.4

Artificial sweeteners – A NIEHS–funded study found sucralose, a widely–used artificial sweetener, changes the gut microbiome in mice and may increase the risk of developing chronic inflammation.5 In a separate study, they found that acesulfame–potassium, another artificial sweetener, induced weight gain in male, but not female, mice.6

Diet – NIEHS researchers showed a high–fat diet shaped the gut microbiome of mice in a way that predisposed them to gain weight and develop obesity.7

Caesarean delivery – NIEHS–funded research indicates the way a newborn enters the world, by C-section or natural birth, and what is eaten, formula or breast milk, during the first six weeks of life may affect the type of microbes in the gut microbiome.8

Antimicrobials – A NIEHS–funded study examined the effects of triclosan, a common ingredient in antimicrobial products, on the gut microbiome in mice. Mice that consumed triclosan through drinking water displayed an uptick in bacterial genes related to the stress response, antibiotic resistance, and heavy metal resistance.9

Arsenic – NIEHS–funded researchers showed arsenic exposure in mice changed the gut microbiome and altered molecular pathways in bacteria that are important to biological functions like DNA repair.10

Pathogens – A NIEHS–funded study showed pathogens, microbes that cause infection or disease, in oral mouthwash samples were associated with pancreatic cancer in humans.11

Pesticides – A NIEHS–funded study reported exposure to the widely used agricultural insecticide diazinon changed the gut microbiome of mice.12  These changes were more pronounced in male than female mice, providing insight into previously reported sex–specific effects of this toxicant on the nervous system.

Ultrafine particles – NIEHS–funded research found breathing ultrafine particles, a component of air pollution, altered the gut microbiome and changed lipid metabolism in mice with atherosclerosis.13

Further Reading

Stories from the Environmental Factor (NIEHS newsletter)

Podcasts

Additional Resources

  1. Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R. 2016. Revised Estimates for the Number of Human and Bacteria Cells in the Body. PLoS Biol; doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533 [Online 19 August 2016]. [PLoS Biol Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R. 2016. Revised Estimates for the Number of Human and Bacteria Cells in the Body. PLoS Biol; doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002533 [Online 19 August 2016].]
  2. Shreiner AB, Kao JY, Young VB. 2015. The gut microbiome in health and in disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 31(1):69–75. [Abstract Shreiner AB, Kao JY, Young VB. 2015. The gut microbiome in health and in disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 31(1):69–75.] [PubMed Abstract Shreiner AB, Kao JY, Young VB. 2015. The gut microbiome in health and in disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 31(1):69–75.]
  3. Claus SP, Guillou H, Ellero-Simatos S. 2016. The gut microbiota: a major player in the toxicity of environmental pollutants? NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes; doi:10.1038/npjbiofilms.2016.3 [Online 4 May 2016] [Abstract Claus SP, Guillou H, Ellero-Simatos S. 2016. The gut microbiota: a major player in the toxicity of environmental pollutants? NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes; doi:10.1038/npjbiofilms.2016.3 [Online 4 May 2016]] [10.1038/npjbiofilms.2016.3 Claus SP, Guillou H, Ellero-Simatos S. 2016. The gut microbiota: a major player in the toxicity of environmental pollutants? NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes; doi:10.1038/npjbiofilms.2016.3 [Online 4 May 2016]]
  4. Gao X, Cao Q, Cheng Y, Zhao D, Wang Z, Yang H, Wu Q, You L, Wang Y, Lin Y, Li X, Wang Y, Bian JS, Sun D, Kong L, Birnbaumer L, Yang Y. 2018 Chronic stress promotes colitis by disturbing the gut microbiota and triggering immune system response. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 115(13):E2960-E2969. [Abstract Gao X, Cao Q, Cheng Y, Zhao D, Wang Z, Yang H, Wu Q, You L, Wang Y, Lin Y, Li X, Wang Y, Bian JS, Sun D, Kong L, Birnbaumer L, Yang Y. 2018 Chronic stress promotes colitis by disturbing the gut microbiota and triggering immune system response. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 115(13):E2960-E2969.]
  5. Bian X, L Chi, B Gao, P Tu, H Ru and K Lu. 2017. Gut Microbiome Response to Sucralose and Its Potential Role in Inducing Liver Inflammation in Mice. Front Physiol; doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00487 [Online 24 Jul 2017] [Abstract Bian X, L Chi, B Gao, P Tu, H Ru and K Lu. 2017. Gut Microbiome Response to Sucralose and Its Potential Role in Inducing Liver Inflammation in Mice. Front Physiol; doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00487 [Online 24 Jul 2017]]
  6. Bian X, L Chi, B Gao, P Tu, H Ru and K Lu. 2017. The artificial sweetener acesulfame potassium affects the gut microbiome and body weight gain in CD-1 mice. PloS One (12(6):e0178426. [Abstract Bian X, L Chi, B Gao, P Tu, H Ru and K Lu. 2017. The artificial sweetener acesulfame potassium affects the gut microbiome and body weight gain in CD-1 mice. PloS One (12(6):e0178426.]
  7. Qin Y, Roberts JD, Grimm SA, Lih FB, Deterding LJ, Li R, Chrysovergis K, Wade PA. An obesity-associated gut microbiome reprograms the intestinal epigenome and leads to altered colonic gene expression. 2018. Genome Biology; https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-018-1389-1. [Online 23 January 2018] [Abstract Qin Y, Roberts JD, Grimm SA, Lih FB, Deterding LJ, Li R, Chrysovergis K, Wade PA. An obesity-associated gut microbiome reprograms the intestinal epigenome and leads to altered colonic gene expression. 2018. Genome Biology; https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-018-1389-1. [Online 23 January 2018]]
  8. Madan JC, Hoen AG, Lundgren SN, Farzan SF, Cottingham KL, Morrison HG, Sogin ML, Li H, Moore JH, Karagas MR. 2016. Effects of Cesarean delivery and formula supplementation with the intestinal microbiome of 6-week-old infants. JAMA Pediatr 170(3):212-219. [Abstract Madan JC, Hoen AG, Lundgren SN, Farzan SF, Cottingham KL, Morrison HG, Sogin ML, Li H, Moore JH, Karagas MR. 2016. Effects of Cesarean delivery and formula supplementation with the intestinal microbiome of 6-week-old infants. JAMA Pediatr 170(3):212-219.]
  9. Gao B, Tu P, Bian X, Chi L, Ru H, Lu K. 2017. Profound perturbation induced by triclosan exposure in mouse gut microbiome: a less resilient microbial community with elevated antibiotic and metal resistomes. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 18(1):46. [Abstract Gao B, Tu P, Bian X, Chi L, Ru H, Lu K. 2017. Profound perturbation induced by triclosan exposure in mouse gut microbiome: a less resilient microbial community with elevated antibiotic and metal resistomes. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 18(1):46.]
  10. Chi L, Bian X, Gao B, Tu P, Ru H, Lu K. 2017. The Effects of an Environmentally Relevant Level of Arsenic on the Gut Microbiome and Its Functional Metagenome. Toxicol Sci 160(2): 193-204. [Abstract Chi L, Bian X, Gao B, Tu P, Ru H, Lu K. 2017. The Effects of an Environmentally Relevant Level of Arsenic on the Gut Microbiome and Its Functional Metagenome. Toxicol Sci 160(2): 193-204.]
  11. Fan X, Alekseyenko AV, Wu J, Peters BA, Jacobs EJ, Gapstur SM, Purdue MP, Abnet CC, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Miller G, Ravel J, Hayes RB, Ahn J. 2018. Human oral microbiome and prospective risk for pancreatic cancer: a population-based nested case-control study. Gut 67(1):120-127. [Abstract Fan X, Alekseyenko AV, Wu J, Peters BA, Jacobs EJ, Gapstur SM, Purdue MP, Abnet CC, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Miller G, Ravel J, Hayes RB, Ahn J. 2018. Human oral microbiome and prospective risk for pancreatic cancer: a population-based nested case-control study. Gut 67(1):120-127.]
  12. Gao B, Bian X, Mahbub R, Lu K. 2017. Sex-specific effects of organophosphate diazinon on the gut microbiome and its metabolic functions. Environ Health Perspect 125:198-206. [Abstract Gao B, Bian X, Mahbub R, Lu K. 2017. Sex-specific effects of organophosphate diazinon on the gut microbiome and its metabolic functions. Environ Health Perspect 125:198-206.]
  13. Li R, Yang J, Saffari A, Jacobs J, Baek KI, Hough G, Larauche MH, Ma J, Jen N, Moussaoui N, Zhou B, Kang H, Reddy S, Henning SM, Campen MJ, Pisegna J, Li Z, Fogelman AM, Sioutas C, Navab M, Hsiai TK. 2017. Ambient Ultrafine Particle Ingestion Alters Gut Microbiota in Association with Increased Atherogenic Lipid Metabolites. Sci Rep; doi: 10.1038/srep42906. [Online 17 Feb 2017] [Abstract Li R, Yang J, Saffari A, Jacobs J, Baek KI, Hough G, Larauche MH, Ma J, Jen N, Moussaoui N, Zhou B, Kang H, Reddy S, Henning SM, Campen MJ, Pisegna J, Li Z, Fogelman AM, Sioutas C, Navab M, Hsiai TK. 2017. Ambient Ultrafine Particle Ingestion Alters Gut Microbiota in Association with Increased Atherogenic Lipid Metabolites. Sci Rep; doi: 10.1038/srep42906. [Online 17 Feb 2017]]

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